Concentration of a Limewater Solution

Concentration of a Limewater Solution To determine the concentration of a Limewater Solution Aim To determine the concentration a 250 cm3 limewater solution, this contains approximately 1g dm-3 of calcium hydroxide. Also known is the concentration of HCL at 2.00mol dm-3. Introduction A titration method will be used to work out the concentration of the limewater But before the concentration of the limewater can be worked out, the correct concentration of HCL must be worked out and an ideal indicator used in the titration method must be chosen. HCL Concentration The known concentration of limewater is 1g dm-3 and the concentration of the HCL is 2.00 mol dm-3. The concentration of HCL too high and must be reduced by dilution. Indicator Indicators in titrations are used to determine the end point of the neutralization of the reaction of an analyte solution (unknown concentration) by the addition of a titrant solution (known concentration and volume). The end-point is shown by the change in colour of the indicator present in the analyte solution. An ideal indicator should: Have a sharp colour change so that just 1 drop of acid will cause the analyte solution to change colour instantly, rather than a gradual colour change from as more acid is added. A distinct colour this makes it easier to spot the colour change, when the analyte has completely been neutralized. The colour change should happen at the equivalence point, which is the point that the number of moles of titrant solution is equal to number of moles of the analyte solution. The indicator ‘Phenolphthalein has these ideal properties and will be suitable for the titration. In this titration, the regent or titrant solution will be HCL and the analyte solution will be the limewater, the phenolphthalein indicator will be placed in the limewater [Ca(OH)2(aq)]. In a base, phenolphthalein changes colour to ‘pink and when in a neutral solution, it will become colourless. The reaction: Ca(OH)2(aq) + 2HCl(aq) CaCl2(aq) + 2H2O(l) Is primarily a base [Ca(OH)2(aq)] plus an acid [2HCl(aq)] which produces water and a salt [CaCl2(aq)] (both together as a solution). Therefore in his titration, as HCL is added to Ca(OH)2(aq) the indicator should turn from ‘pink to colourless upon the complete neutralization of Ca(OH)2(aq). Preparation Before the titration can begin, we must find the correct concentration of HCl worked out from the giving concentration of Ca(OH)2(aq). However the Ca(OH)2(aq) is giving in ‘grams dm-3 and HCL is giving in ‘mol dm-3, thus one of the concentration has to be converted to the same units as the other. Limewater [Ca(OH)2(aq) ] converted from ‘grams dm-3 to ‘mol dm-3 Ca(OH)2(aq) has a concentration of 1g dm-3, which means that 1 gram of Ca(OH)2(aq) is dissolved in 1 dm-3 of water or 1000cm-3. Using the equation Moles = Mass/RMM we can convert the units. Moles = Mass/RMM Mass Ca(OH)2(aq) = 1 gram RMM Ca(OH)2(aq) = 40 + 2(16 + 1) = 74 Moles = 1 / 74 = 0.0135 moldm-3 (3 sig) Concentration of HCL The Limewater [Ca(OH)2(aq) ] has now, the same units of concentration as HCL. Ca(OH)2(aq) + 2HCl(aq) CaCl2(aq) + 2H2O(l) This reaction shows that 2 moles of HCL are reacting with 1 mole Limewater [Ca(OH)2(aq) ]. Therefore the concentration of HCL must be double that of Limewater [Ca(OH)2(aq) ] at approx 0.0200 moldm-3, as it would be impractical to get it at exactly at 0.270 moldm-3. This means that the HCL must be diluted by a factor of 100, again this also impractical, so it will be twice by a factor of 10. Hazards and Safety Key points on safety and hazards when performing the experiment. Hazards HCL is corrosive and toxic. Limewater [Ca(OH)] can have adverse affects with long-term exposure. Safety Equipment must be washed before and after the experiment, to avoid any errors in equipment from chemical traces. Safety goggles and chemical resistant- clothing such as a lab coat must be worn at all times around during the procedure due to high concentration of HCL. The work area must be kept safe and tidy, to avoid any practical hazards Make sure that the burette tap is closed when filling it and use a funnel to avoid any spillages. The funnel must be removed from the burette after use to avoid errors in results from the regent (HCL) dripping into it from the funnel and would be a hazard. Method to dilute HCL Equipment and Chemicals Standard flask (500cm3) Pipette pump Graduated pipette (50cm3) Beaker (500cm3) 2.00 moldm-3 of HCL (50 cm3) Distilled water (900cm3) Method Using the graduated pipette connected to the pipette pump, obtain the 50cm3 of HCl and place into the standard flask.]. (Note the graduated pipette need to be washed after use). Then pour 450cm3 of distilled water in to the flask Place the stopper onto the standard flask, and shake the solution to mix it thoroughly taking care not to spill it. Pour the solution then from the standard flask into the beaker. Then using the graduated pipette connected to the pipette pump, obtain 50 cm3 of the solution and place in into the standard flask. Wash out the contents of the beaker Then pour 450cm3 of the distilled water into the standard flask a Repeat step 3 to 4. Wash out the standard flask and graduated pipette. The 0.02 moldm-3 solution of HCl (500cm3) is now made. Method of Titration Fig.1 Equipment and Chemicals   Test Start Value (cm3) End Value (cm3) Titration (cm3) 1st (Rough) 0.00 2nd 0.00 3rd 0.00 4th 0.00 5th 0.00 Average 0.00 Burette stand. Burette (50cm3). Funnel. Graduated pipette (25cm3). Pipette pump. Conical flask (250cm3). Beaker containing the 250cm3 of the 0.002moldm-3 of Fig.2 HCL from the dilution method. Beaker containing 250cm3 of the unknown limewater [Ca(OH)2(aq) ] solution. White Tile Phenolphthalein Indicator. A drawn table, as shown in Fig.1. Method Set up the equipment as shown in the diagram to the right in Fig.2. Obtain and transfer using the graduated pipette connected to the pipette pump up to the fill line to the conical flask. add 5 drops of the phenolphthalein indicator (keep this number of drops the same for each of the titrations) Fill the burette with HCL up to 50cm3 and ensure the tap is closed. The First titration The first titration is a rough titration, to show an indication at what rough volume of HCL the colour-change will be at. This anticipation of the rough volume allows the next titrations to be more accurate. Open the tap slowly and let the HCL drip into the conical flask at a consistent rate and at the same time swill the conical flask Continue this until there is a colour change from the limewater [Ca(OH)2(aq) ] in the conical flask from ‘pink to ‘colourless, when this colour change happens, close the tap . Record on a table the volume of HCL at the point of the colour change in the End point column in the drawn table. Wash out he conical flask and repeat steps 1 to 4 Further titrations Open the tap slowly and let the HCL drip into the conical flask and higher rate than in the rough titration and swill the conical flask. Do this until the volume of HCL is 10 cm3 away from the rough end point volume. At this point reduce the rate of the drip, to at least 1 drop a second, and swill the conical flask more (be careful not to spill it), this will allow each drop to be neutralized and the limewater to show a colour change before the next one drips, ensuring more accurate results. Close the tap at the point of the colour change and record the end point volumes in the drawn table. Repeat steps 7 and 8 five times and records the results in the drawn table, ensure that at least 3 of the further titration end point values are consistent within 0.2cm3 of each other. Wash out graduated pipette, beaker, burette, funnel and conical flask. Results The results need to be processed. The titration column is difference between the start point value and the end point value The units of all the results need to be at 2 decimal places and the averages taken the start point value, the end point value and the titration value for excluding the rough titration results. Test Start Value (cm3) End Value (cm3) Titration (cm3) 1st (Rough) 0.00 2nd 0.00 3rd 0.00 4th 0.00 5th 0.00 Average 0.00 Analysis The average titration (represented by X in the table below) will be in cm-3 and will need to be converted into dm3 to make its easier to use in calculations. To convert the value from cm3 to dm3, divide the value by 1000. Xcm3 / 1000 = Xdm3 HCl Ca(OH)2 Moles / moles ? ? Volume / dm3 X 0.025 Conc. moldm-3 0.02 ? Using the equation for a moles in a solution Moles = Concentration x Volume The moles of HCL can now be worked out as the concentration is now known and the volume of HCL is

Discuss the ways in which Steinbeck explores the concept of the ‘American Dream’ is central to the novel Essay

The American Dream was a dream that nearly everyone had throughout the twentieth century. It was hope for a better life and people believed strongly that it would come true. The main characters in ‘Of Mice & Men’ have a dream which was to get a plot of land and live on it and become self-sufficient. The American Dream was not an achievable goal for many people. Steinbeck shows this failure through the characters of Lennie & George. The American dream was a great thing. We first heard about it when Lennie and George were sitting by the river at the beginning of the book. The dream was a hope that every rancher had an opportunity for a better life. Lennie and George, the two main characters, had such a dream, â€Å"Some day were gonna get a little place and a couple of acres†. The idea was to get a piece of land, grow crops and have an improved life there. They also new exactly what they were aiming for and what they wanted. They realised that their imagination should not be set too high for fear of disappointment. The two men also knew that they should not tell other people about the plot of land in case it was snatched from under their noses. This frequently happened then, as so many people were seeking the same desire., â€Å"Well it’s ten acres said George. Got a little win mill. Got a little shack on it and a chicken run. Got a kitchen, orchard, cherries, peaches, cots, nuts, got a few berries.† This shows that Lennie and George had ambition and again, knew what they wanted. It also shows that there were places where the dream had a chance of coming true, and that affordable land was for sale. Lennie and George intended to get the land by working extremely hard for a couple of months. They would earn standard migrant labour workers wages which was of course not very much, as the great depression was around at the time the book was set. The men hoped to save money and put it towards the plot of land, â€Å"Look, if me an Lennie work a month an’ don’t spen’ nothing we’ll have a hundred bucks†. Sooner or later people started to realise that the American Dream was turning into a nightmare. This is shown in the book by all the travelling and unemployment. Steinbeck shows that people were determined to get a job and willing to travel around to find one, he reinforces this through Lennie and George. At the start of the novel Steinbeck told us that they were walking, so we obviously know that they have had a nomadic life. During their rest they have a conversation about their travels â€Å"The first thing you know is that they are pounding away at some other ranch†. This backs up the fact that people travel around for jobs. We know how Lennie and George frequently lose their jobs, this is due to Lennie constantly getting the pair of them into trouble which jeopardises their current job. Because of this they have to travel from one ranch to another in search of another job. Also you can corroborate the fact that people travelled by George quoting, â€Å"The hell with what I says. You remember about us going into Murray and Ready’s and they give us work cards and bus tickets†. Murray and Ready are a typical work agency that sprung up in America during the Great Depression. In the 1930s the Great Depression spoilt the American Dream, it damaged everything that had a promising future, from buying food to making investments in the stock market. Through out the novel we do not see this very much. It is shown only as a high unemployment rate. George is very passionate about work as he wants to achieve his dream. As you read on through the book George comments on other people in his situation, â€Å"They aint got nothing to look ahead to†. Implying that George is fed up of losing his job to other people. He now knows you should not think about looking ahead to long term ambitions as anything can happen. The rate of unemployment was a serious issue at the time of the book, as the economy was decreasing rapidly. It is shown through various characters such as Carlson, Slim, Lennie, George and many more. We know that they all have been travelling from ranch to ranch in search of jobs during this time, they have started to feel like they do not have a home and don’t belong anywhere. â€Å"Guys like us, they got no family and don’t belong no place. They come to a ranch an work up a stake then they go into town and blow their stake†. This was quite normal for young and old men in their quest, not just for the dream, but for survival. Because of that, it made it hard for people to keep a job as other people who were as desperate, came along and accepted less pay to work at the same job, just so they could get some money. The idea of the American Dream was to be happy but just as well as the Great depression, racism also crippled the illusion. The dream was merely for the whites, as many of the blacks were unlawfully discarded from the opportunity or status to achieve it. Steinbeck shows this in the book through a character called Crooks, who was a crippled Negro stable buck and had suffered years of abuse in his life. Although Crooks could read and write, he was very lonely and because he was black, he could not join in with the usual endeavours of other men on the ranch. â€Å"Suppose you had to sit out here and read books. Sure you could play horseshoes till it gets dark, but then you got to read books†. This shows he only had books for company. It was still very racist in the 1930’s so there was not much chance of Crooks achieving the dream by himself and certainly no one at that time would try to help. In the course of the book Crooks also tells us about his life in the past, how his father did actually achieve the dream, and how his family was the only coloured family in Soledad, which is where the book was set. â€Å"There wasn’t another coloured family for miles around. And now there aint no coloured man on this ranch†. Crooks felt strongly about this, he was neglected by everyone and still felt as if he was being treated as an unequal by every other man. He wanted so much to be included in the games that everyone participated in. â€Å"Suppose you couldn’t go into the bunk house and play rummy cause you was black†. Because Crooks was being denied these privileges he turned into a bitter man who was equally as malicious as the offenders. This portrays the dream in a bad way, which is unusual as the dream is usually portrayed as being happy and being the provider when it actually created tensions between different races and cultures and caused many tribulations between people. Although Crooks is abused by many people on the ranch there is one person in the book who does not discriminate him because he is black, that person is Lennie. Lennie does not understand or see the racism in the world and he sees everyone as being the same. Crooks feels he can talk to Lennie about many things, â€Å"A guy can talk to you an’ be sure you won’t go blabbin†. Because of this it reassures Crooks and makes him feel better as he knows he can talk to some one instead of read books At first there was a chance of the dream coming true. One reason was because of Candy, willing to give his life savings so he would know that he had somewhere to go after he was incapable of working on the ranch, † Tell you what suppose I went in with you guys thas three hundred and fifty bucks I’d put in†. This endorses the fact that he was willing to put every last coinage that he had, to assist him to have a happy finale to his life. Also Crooks, the negro stable buck, offers to help, â€Å"If you guys would want a hand in work for nothing just his keep†. He did this just so he could have a friendship with someone and feel liked. In addition no one else knew about this certain plot of land, which made it a secret of the group and easy to obtain. We know that the owners needed to get the money fast, â€Å"The ol’ people that owns it is flat bust an’ the ol’ lady needs an operation†. Because of all this Lennie, George and Candy s tood a very good chance of achieving this reverie. The American dream ended due to a series of unfortunate events. Steinbeck shows this through Lennie and George not getting the land. They did not get it because of many things. The main reason for them failing was Lennie. He spoilt the dream for George, as he was constantly getting into trouble and destroying any chance that he had to achieve the dream. After a while other men on the ranch begin to question their past, for example, Slim, â€Å"What happened in Weed†. We know that they have been travelling around and losing jobs, but it was not just because of other men stealing their jobs only to get paid less, it was also Lennie destructively destroying their chances, because of this they, had to move on to another ranch. In the end they had no hope what so ever, of the dream coming true because of Lennie, once again, getting George into trouble, as he was responsible for Lennie, when he unintentionally killed Curly’s wife. If given the chance most men on the farm would attempt the dream even if they thought it was impossible. A good example is Crooks, at one point in the story, he was putting down the fact of any one achieving their goal, â€Å"Jesus I seen it too many time. Too many guys with land in their head. They never get none under their hand†. When Crooks found out that there was a chance of it happening, he decided on trying to get in on it, â€Å"If you guys would want a hand to work for nothing, just his keep, why I’d come an lend a hand†. You can see also that people always put down the achievement of the dream, but they all had a secret burning ambition to get it if the chance came around. Through out the book Steinbeck managed to portray the conditions of the Great Depression in the 1930’s. He also gave us a glimpse of The American Dream that every one pursued and showed us that it was not an easy achievement. Steinbeck has managed to show the different levels of hardship and suffering that people faced during that period of time and also managed to show more hopeless situations of people from a minority. The concept of the American Dream is at the heart of the novel ‘Of Mice & Men’ and therefore allows Steinbeck to make comments on American Society and the time of the Great Depression.

Income and Disposable Income Essay

Income will mean cash income before taxes, and will include government transfer payments such as unemployment insurance benefits, family allowance payments, pensions, welfare assistance, etc. Disposable income specifically focuses on the amount of income available for private consumption and spending. Disposable income takes into consideration the reality that â€Å"take-home pay† is heavily influenced by not only gross income, but also by factors such as government transfer levels, taxation levels, and inflation. Disposable Income is defined in two ways: * Income after federal and provincial income taxes * Income after taxes, employment insurance and Canada Pension Plan Discretionary Income is Disposable Income after deductions for basic necessities such as food, clothing, shelter, transportation, healthcare, personal care, etc. Life-Cycle State – people change the goods and services they buy over their lifetimes. Buying is also shaped by the stage of the family life cycle-the stages through which families might pass as they mature over time. Marketers often define their target markets in terms of life-cycle stage and develop appropriate products and marketing plans. Described in the following graph, on average, real disposable income has grown at a very slow rate of 0.05% from 1980 to 1998. This varies from 0.32% for a family of 2 parents with children, 0.14% for economic families of 2 persons or more, 0.09% for elderly families to 0.31% for lone parent families. These figures have improved over the last 3 years. In 2000, real disposable income per capita grew 2.7%, its strongest growth rate in over a decade. The above chart shows the percentage change in inflation-adjusted incomes of families with children for the lowest 5th of families to those in the top 5th of family incomes from the late 1970s to 1997. It can be seen that for the lowest 5th of families real incomes fell 21% during past 2 decades, while incomes for the highest 5th increased 30%. That’s quite a swing. Further, the chart shows for the middle 5th of family incomes their current inflation-adjusted income is about 3% less than 2 decades ago. That’s pure and simple. No wonder family saving fell while household debt ratios soared. Look again at this chart. The top family earners increased income 30% above inflation in those 2 decades. But, if recognize that 30% real income growth over 2 decades is but 1.16% average per year compounded above inflation, its not that great, especially compared to all average family incomes increasing at an annual rate of 3-4% above inflation prior to 1970, most with one wage-earner per family. In other words, this chart suggested that the top family earners since the 1970s made out worse than did all average family incomes prior to 1970. Of course the poorest 5th saw their real family income drop 21% past 21 years or about 1.12% per year below inflation rates. This shows how dramatic long-term implications can be, just 2% per year separating top and lower earners – and how much poorer is total family income performance now compared to before. The marketers can use these statistics to estimate the future trend of people buying behavior. In order to develop new technologies or sell strategies, these statistics would help marketer to decide what they have to change to gain more profits.

Gender Symbolism In The Fences - 1815 Words

Fences Essay In the Fences, by August Wilson shows that life of African Americans in the U.S. in the 1950s with the story of Troy and his family. Wilson uses the symbol of the fence to show the desires of each character like Rose’s desire is to keep her family together, Troy’s desire is to keep death out and to be not bound forever, and Bono’s desire is to follow Troy, his best friend, as an example of the right way to live and to be with Rose and Troy who are basically his family. Rose and the other seen characters represent people and show gender roles of the time, like Rose is a housewife, Troy is the provider. Also Cory is the new generation of emotion over responsibility, Gabriel represents the war heros that were permanently†¦show more content†¦Bono: Some people build fences to keep people out†¦ and other people build fences to keep people in. Rose wants to hold on to you all. She loves you.† (12.i.) Here August Wilson in the first part shows a little of the gender roles of the 1950s where men are the boss of the house and women are subservient to them. It also shows that Rose did not go in as told but remained there with them and Troy accepted that he could not tell her what to do. The image or action of Rose not leaving shows the changing of the times in other words the 1950s on the fence to between the old ways and the new ones. In the first part of what Bono says describes Troy with death and the other part describes Rose with her love for her family and desire to keep everyone close and happy. The character Gabriel (Uncle Gabe) is a mix of many different things and people that of the time and believes he signals the opening of heaven’s gate as his interpretation of the fence. Gabriel is Troy’s half brother who went and fought in the war. He was medically discharged after receiving a head injury that permanently reduced his mental functions. 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